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How Does One Explain Assyrian Substitute Kings?
A lunar eclipse could make a king in ancient Mesopotamia vanish from public view without anyone overthrowing him. In the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Assyrian substitute kings were part of a grave response to a perceived threat of divine judgment. To modern eyes, the plan sounds almost impossible to believe. A king gave another man his clothes,…
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How Does One Understand the Hittite Substitute King Ritual?
An eclipse can feel eerie even when you know exactly what causes it. For a Late Bronze Age king, it could look like a notice of death delivered across the sky. The Hittite rite was an attempt to answer that terrifying message. When an omen threatened the ruler, the court could temporarily assign royal identity…
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How Does One Read the Piacenza Liver?
Imagine asking whether to go to war, sign a treaty, or begin a public project, then seeking an answer in an animal’s liver. For the Etruscans, this wasn’t a bizarre party trick. It was a serious ritual moment within Etruscan religion. Etruscan liver divination gave trained priests a way to read the gods’ approval, anger,…



























